An In-Depth Review of Gender Bias in the Criminal Justice System
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Abstract
This qualitative analysis delves into the pervasive issue of gender bias within the Pakistani criminal justice system. It presents a comprehensive review of existing secondary data, shedding light on the complexities and manifestations of gender-based discrimination at multiple levels of the justice system.In Pakistan, the criminal justice system is deeply embedded with societal norms and biases, disproportionately affecting women who encounter it as victims, witnesses, or accused individuals. Through this review, we examine the ways in which gender bias permeates law enforcement, court procedures, and sentencing.The study identifies and evaluates the various factors that contribute to the perpetuation of gender bias within the system, including cultural norms, socio-economic disparities, and the limited representation of women in the legal profession. It also explores the consequences of this bias on the experiences and outcomes for individuals involved in the system.Furthermore, the research investigates the evolving legal landscape and policy initiatives aimed at addressing gender bias in Pakistan's criminal justice system. By drawing on a multitude of secondary sources, this analysis seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of gender bias and its implications within the country's legal framework.
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References
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Anwar, S., Bayer, P., & Hjalmarsson, R. (2012). The Role of Age in Jury Selection and Trial Outcomes. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper.
Anwar, S., Bayer, P., & Hjalmarsson, R. (2014). Politics and peer effects in the courtroom. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper
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Becker, G. S. (1968). Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy, 76(2), 169-217
Bhattacharya S. (2014). Status of women in Pakistan. Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan; 51(1).
Boyd, Christina L., Lee Epstein & Andrew D. Martin. 2010. “Untangling the Causal Effect of Sex on Judging.” American Journal of Political Science 54: 389-411.
Bukhari M.A.H.S, Gaho M.G.M, Soomro M.K.H. (2019). Gender inequality: problems & its solutions in Pakistan. The Government-Annual Research Journal of Political Science; 7(7).
Bukhari M.A.H.S, Gaho, M. G. M., & Soomro, M.K.H. (2019). Gender inequality: problems & its solutions in Pakistan. Gov-Annu Res J Pol Sci;7(7):47–58.
Bukhari, A.H.S., Gaho, G.M. and Soomro, K.H. (2018). Gender Inequality Problems & Its Solutions in Pakistan. Research Journal of Political Science, 7, 47-58.
Büsch, F., & Timbart, O. (2016). Un traitement judiciaire différent entre hommes et femmes délinquants. INSEE reference (forthcoming).
Butt, B. I., & Asad, A. Z. (2016). Social policy and women status in Pakistan: a situation analysis. Orient Res J Soc Sci;1(1):47–62.
Butt, B. I., Asad, A. Z. (2016). Social policy and women status in Pakistan: A situation analysis. Orient Research Journal of Social Sciences; 1(1), 47-62
Carrell, S. E., Page, M. E., & West, J. E. (2010). Sex and science : how professor gender perpetuates the gender gap. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(3)
Delavande A, Zafar B. (2013). Gender discrimination and social identity: experimental evidence from urban Pakistan. FRB of New York Staff Report 2013; (593).
Delavande, A., & Zafar, B. (2013). Gender discrimination and social identity: experimental evidence from urban Pakistan. FRB New York Staff Rep. 2013;593. Available at SSRN 2198386.
Depew, B., Eren, O., & Mocan, N. (2016). Judges, Juveniles and In-group Bias (No. w22003). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Domeisen, N. (1998). Community life and disaster reduction. News: Women in Emergencies.
Ejaz, S.S, & Ara, A. A. (2011). Gender discrimination and the role of women in Pakistan. J Soc Sci Humanit;50(1):95–105.
Ejaz, S.S., & Ara, A. A. (2011). Gender Discrimination and the Role of Women in Pakistan. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities; 50(1), 95-105.
Farnworth, M., Teske, Jr., R.H.C. & Thurman, G. (1991). “Ethnic, racial and minority disparity in felony court processing.,” In M.J. Lynch and E.B. Patterson (eds.), Race and criminal justice (pp. 123-134). New York: Harrow and Heston.
Farrell, A., Ward, G., & Rousseau, D. (2010). Intersections of Gender and Race in Federal Sentencing: Examining Court Contexts and Effects of Representative Court Authorities. J. Gender Race & Just., 14, 85.
Fischer, G. J. (1997). Gender effects on individual verdicts and on mock jury verdicts in a simulated acquaintance rape trial. Sex roles, 36(7-8), 491-501.
Fleming, P.J., McCleary-Sills, J., Morton, M., Levtov, R., Heilman, B. and Barker, G. (2015) Risk Factors for Men’s Lifetime Perpetration of Physical Violence against Intimate Partners: Results from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) in Eight Countries. PLoS ONE, 10, 1-18.
Foundation, A. (2012). Annual Report in VAW: A Qualitative Review of 2011 Statistics. Islamabad. –
Ghali, M. & Chesey-Lind, M. (1986). Gender bias and the criminal justice system: An empirical investigation. Sociology and Social Research, 70,164-171.
Glaeser, E. L., & Sacerdote, B. (2003). Sentencing in homicide cases and the role of vengeance. The Journal of Legal Studies, 32(2), 363-382.
Glynn, A. N., & Sen, M. (2015). Identifying Judicial Empathy: Does Having Daughters Cause Judges to Rule for Women's Issues?. American Journal of Political Science, 59(1), 37-54.
Gruhl, J., Welch, S. & Spohn, C. (1984). Women as criminal defendants: A test for paternalism.
Guthrie, C., Rachlinski, J. J., & Wistrich, A. J. (2007). Blinking on the bench: How judges decide cases. Cornell Law Review, 93(1)
Hamid, A., & Ahmed, A. M. (2011). An analysis of multi-dimensional gender inequality in Pakistan. Asian J Bus Manag;3(3):166–77.
Hamid, A., & Ahmed, A. M. (2011). An analysis of multi-dimensional gender inequality in Pakistan. Asian Journal of Business Management; 3(3), 166- 177.
Healy, J. and Zucca, L.J. (2004) The Gender Equity Gap in Top Corporate Executive Positions. Mid-American Journal of Business, 19, 55-62.
Henrici, J. M. Helmuth, A. S. & Braun, J. (2010). Women, Disasters, and Hurricane Katrina. Institute for Women’s Policy Research
Iqbal, H., Afzal, S., & Inayat, M. (2012). Gender discrimination: implications for Pakistan security. IOSR J Humanit Soc Sci. 1(4):16–25.
Iqbal, H., Afzal, S., & Inayat, M. (2012). Gender Discrimination: Implications for Pakistan Security. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science; 1(4), 16-25.
Kazimi, A. B., Shaikh, M.A., & John, S. (2019). Mothers Role and Perception in Developing Gender Discrimination. Global Political Review; 4(2), 20-28.
Kazimi, A.B., Shaikh, M. A., & John, S. (2019). Mothers role and perception in developing gender discrimination. Glob Polit Rev;4(2):20–8.
Khan, A., & Zaman, S. (2012). The Criminal Justice System & Rape- An Attitudinal Study of the Public Sectors' Response to Rape in Karachi. Research, Karachi. –
Klasen, S., & Lamanna, F. (2008). The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth in developing countries: Updates and extensions (No. 175). IAI Discussion Papers.
Lari, M. Z., & Zaman, S. (2011). Sexual Violence & the Law in Pakistan. Karachi: War Against Rape. –
Lim, C. S., Snyder Jr, J. M., & Strömberg, D. (2015). The Judge, the politician, and the press: Newspaper coverage and criminal sentencing across electoral systems. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 7(4), 103–135.
Mahmood, B., & Sohail, M. M., Khalid, S., & Babak, I. (2012). Gender-specific barriers to female entrepreneurs in Pakistan: A study in urban areas of Pakistan. Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science; 339-352.
Mahmood, B., Sohail, M. M., Khalid, S., & Babak, I. (2012). Gender-specific barriers to female entrepreneurs in Pakistan: a study in urban areas of Pakistan. J Educ Soc Behav Sci;2(4):339–52.
Moheyuddin, G. (2005, November). Background, Assessment and Analysis of the Gender issues in Pakistan, MPRA Paper No. 683.
Nelson, R. L. (1999). Legalizing Gender Inequality: Courts, Markets, and Unequal Pay for Women in America. Cambridge University Press
Neumayer, E., & Plümper, T. (2007). The gendered nature of natural disasters: The impact of catastrophic events on the gender gap in life expectancy, 1981– 2002. Annals of the association of American Geographers, 97(3), 551-566.
Parkinson, D. (2017). Investigating the Increase in Domestic Violence Post Disaster: An Australian Case Study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2333–2362.
Pervaiz, Z., Chani, M.I., Jan, S.A. and Chaudhary, A.R. (2011) Gender Inequality and Economic Growth: A Time Series Analysis for Pakistan. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 10, 434-439.
Prudence, P., Maxine, T. and Noba, D. (2007) Gender-Based Wage Differentials among Registered Dietitians. Health Care Manager, 26, 52-63.
Pulla, V. (2014). Patriarchy, gender violence and poverty amongst Pakistani women: a social work inquiry. Int J Soc Work Hum Serv Pract;2(2):56–63
Rabia M, Tanveer F, Gillani M, Naeem H, Akbar S. (2019). Gender inequality: a case study in Pakistan. Open Journal of Social Sciences; 7(03), 369
Rabia, M., Tanveer, F., Gillani, M., Naeem, H., & Akbar, S. (2019). Gender inequality: a case study in Pakistan. Open J Soc Sci;7(03):369.
Rahman, F. N. (2014). Gender and Access to Justice: A Case of Pakistan. JOUR
Rapaport, E. (1991). The death penalty and gender discrimination. Law and Society Review, 25, 368-383.
Raza, A., & Murad, H. S. (2010). Gender gap in Pakistan: A socio‐demographic analysis. International Journal of social economics. Vol. 37 No. 7, pp. 541-557.
Rives, Janet M. Yousefi, Mahmood. (1997). Economic Dimensions of Gender Inequality: A Global Perspective. Faculty Book Gallery
Roy, A. (2003). City requiem, Calcutta: Gender and the politics of poverty (Vol. 10). Minnesota Press.
Samir Dasgupta; Ismail Siriner; Partha Sarathi De. (2010). Women’s encounter with disaster. Frontpage publications
Schanzenbach, M. (2005). Racial and sex disparities in prison sentences: The effect of district-level judicial demographics. The Journal of Legal Studies, 34(1), 57-92.
Shah S, Shah U. Girl education in rural Pakistan. Revista Internacional de Sociología de la Educación 2012; 1(2), 180-207.
Shayo, M., & Zussman, A. (2011). Judicial ingroup bias in the shadow of terrorism. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(3), 1447-1484.
Shellenbarger, S.U.E. (2006) Boys Mow Lawns, Girls Do Dishes: Are Parents Perpetuating the Chore Wars? Wall street Journal-Eastern Edition, 258.
Social Policy and Development Center (SPDC). (2012). The Socio-economic Cost of Violence Against Women: A Case Study of Karachi. –
Spohn, C. & Welch, S. (1987). The effect of prior record in sentencing research: An examination of the assumption that any measure is adequate. Justice Quarterly, 4, 286-302.
Starr, S. B. (2015). Estimating gender disparities in federal criminal cases. American Law and Economics Review, 17(1), 127-159
Suddle, M. S. (2001). Reforming Pakistan Police: An Overview. - WAR. (2010, 2011, 2012). Sexual Violence Factsheet. Karachi. –
Tarar MG, Pulla, V. Patriarchy, gender violence and poverty amongst Pakistani women: A social work inquiry. International Journal of Social Work and Human Services Practice 2014; 2(2), 56-63.
Visher, C. (1983). Gender, police arrest decisions, and notions of chivalry. Criminology, 21, 5- 28.
Vishwanath, T. (2005). Pakistan: Country Gender Assessment, Bridging the Gender Gap, Opportunities and Challenges.
Willison, D. (1984). The effects of counsel on the severity of criminal sentences: A statistical Assessment. Justice System Journal, 9, 87-101.
Younus, J. (2015). Gender bias in the criminal justice system. Published in The Express Tribune, August 7th.
Zaman, S., & Rasheed, S. (2012). With and End in Sight: Incest in Pakistan- A Legal & Socio-cultural Analysis. Karachi: War Against Rape
Zarar, R., Bukhsh, M.M. and Khasheli, A.K. (2017) Causes and Consequences of Gender Discrimination against Women in Quetta City. Arts and Social Sciences Journal, 8, 1-6.
Alam, A. (2011). Impact of gender discrimination on gender development and poverty alleviation. Sarhad J. Agric; 27(2), 330-331.
Anwar, S., Bayer, P., & Hjalmarsson, R. (2012). The impact of jury race in criminal trials. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 127(2), 1017-1055.
Anwar, S., Bayer, P., & Hjalmarsson, R. (2012). The Role of Age in Jury Selection and Trial Outcomes. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper.
Anwar, S., Bayer, P., & Hjalmarsson, R. (2014). Politics and peer effects in the courtroom. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper
Atif, K., Ullah, M. Z., Afsheen A, Naqvi SAH, Raja ZA, Niazi S. A. (2016). Son preference in Pakistan; a myth or reality. Pakistan journal of medical sciences; 32(4), 994.
Aziz Z. A. (2020). “Gender Based Violence Courts in Pakistan: A Gap in Gender Equality Remains, but a Promising Start”, (OxHRH Blog, June 2020),
Bari, F. (2000). Women in Pakistan: Country briefing paper. Asian Development Bank
Becker, G. S. (1968). Crime and Punishment: An Economic Approach. Journal of Political Economy, 76(2), 169-217
Bhattacharya S. (2014). Status of women in Pakistan. Journal of the Research Society of Pakistan; 51(1).
Boyd, Christina L., Lee Epstein & Andrew D. Martin. 2010. “Untangling the Causal Effect of Sex on Judging.” American Journal of Political Science 54: 389-411.
Bukhari M.A.H.S, Gaho M.G.M, Soomro M.K.H. (2019). Gender inequality: problems & its solutions in Pakistan. The Government-Annual Research Journal of Political Science; 7(7).
Bukhari M.A.H.S, Gaho, M. G. M., & Soomro, M.K.H. (2019). Gender inequality: problems & its solutions in Pakistan. Gov-Annu Res J Pol Sci;7(7):47–58.
Bukhari, A.H.S., Gaho, G.M. and Soomro, K.H. (2018). Gender Inequality Problems & Its Solutions in Pakistan. Research Journal of Political Science, 7, 47-58.
Büsch, F., & Timbart, O. (2016). Un traitement judiciaire différent entre hommes et femmes délinquants. INSEE reference (forthcoming).
Butt, B. I., & Asad, A. Z. (2016). Social policy and women status in Pakistan: a situation analysis. Orient Res J Soc Sci;1(1):47–62.
Butt, B. I., Asad, A. Z. (2016). Social policy and women status in Pakistan: A situation analysis. Orient Research Journal of Social Sciences; 1(1), 47-62
Carrell, S. E., Page, M. E., & West, J. E. (2010). Sex and science : how professor gender perpetuates the gender gap. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 125(3)
Delavande A, Zafar B. (2013). Gender discrimination and social identity: experimental evidence from urban Pakistan. FRB of New York Staff Report 2013; (593).
Delavande, A., & Zafar, B. (2013). Gender discrimination and social identity: experimental evidence from urban Pakistan. FRB New York Staff Rep. 2013;593. Available at SSRN 2198386.
Depew, B., Eren, O., & Mocan, N. (2016). Judges, Juveniles and In-group Bias (No. w22003). National Bureau of Economic Research.
Domeisen, N. (1998). Community life and disaster reduction. News: Women in Emergencies.
Ejaz, S.S, & Ara, A. A. (2011). Gender discrimination and the role of women in Pakistan. J Soc Sci Humanit;50(1):95–105.
Ejaz, S.S., & Ara, A. A. (2011). Gender Discrimination and the Role of Women in Pakistan. Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities; 50(1), 95-105.
Farnworth, M., Teske, Jr., R.H.C. & Thurman, G. (1991). “Ethnic, racial and minority disparity in felony court processing.,” In M.J. Lynch and E.B. Patterson (eds.), Race and criminal justice (pp. 123-134). New York: Harrow and Heston.
Farrell, A., Ward, G., & Rousseau, D. (2010). Intersections of Gender and Race in Federal Sentencing: Examining Court Contexts and Effects of Representative Court Authorities. J. Gender Race & Just., 14, 85.
Fischer, G. J. (1997). Gender effects on individual verdicts and on mock jury verdicts in a simulated acquaintance rape trial. Sex roles, 36(7-8), 491-501.
Fleming, P.J., McCleary-Sills, J., Morton, M., Levtov, R., Heilman, B. and Barker, G. (2015) Risk Factors for Men’s Lifetime Perpetration of Physical Violence against Intimate Partners: Results from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey (IMAGES) in Eight Countries. PLoS ONE, 10, 1-18.
Foundation, A. (2012). Annual Report in VAW: A Qualitative Review of 2011 Statistics. Islamabad. –
Ghali, M. & Chesey-Lind, M. (1986). Gender bias and the criminal justice system: An empirical investigation. Sociology and Social Research, 70,164-171.
Glaeser, E. L., & Sacerdote, B. (2003). Sentencing in homicide cases and the role of vengeance. The Journal of Legal Studies, 32(2), 363-382.
Glynn, A. N., & Sen, M. (2015). Identifying Judicial Empathy: Does Having Daughters Cause Judges to Rule for Women's Issues?. American Journal of Political Science, 59(1), 37-54.
Gruhl, J., Welch, S. & Spohn, C. (1984). Women as criminal defendants: A test for paternalism.
Guthrie, C., Rachlinski, J. J., & Wistrich, A. J. (2007). Blinking on the bench: How judges decide cases. Cornell Law Review, 93(1)
Hamid, A., & Ahmed, A. M. (2011). An analysis of multi-dimensional gender inequality in Pakistan. Asian J Bus Manag;3(3):166–77.
Hamid, A., & Ahmed, A. M. (2011). An analysis of multi-dimensional gender inequality in Pakistan. Asian Journal of Business Management; 3(3), 166- 177.
Healy, J. and Zucca, L.J. (2004) The Gender Equity Gap in Top Corporate Executive Positions. Mid-American Journal of Business, 19, 55-62.
Henrici, J. M. Helmuth, A. S. & Braun, J. (2010). Women, Disasters, and Hurricane Katrina. Institute for Women’s Policy Research
Iqbal, H., Afzal, S., & Inayat, M. (2012). Gender discrimination: implications for Pakistan security. IOSR J Humanit Soc Sci. 1(4):16–25.
Iqbal, H., Afzal, S., & Inayat, M. (2012). Gender Discrimination: Implications for Pakistan Security. IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science; 1(4), 16-25.
Kazimi, A. B., Shaikh, M.A., & John, S. (2019). Mothers Role and Perception in Developing Gender Discrimination. Global Political Review; 4(2), 20-28.
Kazimi, A.B., Shaikh, M. A., & John, S. (2019). Mothers role and perception in developing gender discrimination. Glob Polit Rev;4(2):20–8.
Khan, A., & Zaman, S. (2012). The Criminal Justice System & Rape- An Attitudinal Study of the Public Sectors' Response to Rape in Karachi. Research, Karachi. –
Klasen, S., & Lamanna, F. (2008). The impact of gender inequality in education and employment on economic growth in developing countries: Updates and extensions (No. 175). IAI Discussion Papers.
Lari, M. Z., & Zaman, S. (2011). Sexual Violence & the Law in Pakistan. Karachi: War Against Rape. –
Lim, C. S., Snyder Jr, J. M., & Strömberg, D. (2015). The Judge, the politician, and the press: Newspaper coverage and criminal sentencing across electoral systems. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 7(4), 103–135.
Mahmood, B., & Sohail, M. M., Khalid, S., & Babak, I. (2012). Gender-specific barriers to female entrepreneurs in Pakistan: A study in urban areas of Pakistan. Journal of Education, Society and Behavioural Science; 339-352.
Mahmood, B., Sohail, M. M., Khalid, S., & Babak, I. (2012). Gender-specific barriers to female entrepreneurs in Pakistan: a study in urban areas of Pakistan. J Educ Soc Behav Sci;2(4):339–52.
Moheyuddin, G. (2005, November). Background, Assessment and Analysis of the Gender issues in Pakistan, MPRA Paper No. 683.
Nelson, R. L. (1999). Legalizing Gender Inequality: Courts, Markets, and Unequal Pay for Women in America. Cambridge University Press
Neumayer, E., & Plümper, T. (2007). The gendered nature of natural disasters: The impact of catastrophic events on the gender gap in life expectancy, 1981– 2002. Annals of the association of American Geographers, 97(3), 551-566.
Parkinson, D. (2017). Investigating the Increase in Domestic Violence Post Disaster: An Australian Case Study. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2333–2362.
Pervaiz, Z., Chani, M.I., Jan, S.A. and Chaudhary, A.R. (2011) Gender Inequality and Economic Growth: A Time Series Analysis for Pakistan. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 10, 434-439.
Prudence, P., Maxine, T. and Noba, D. (2007) Gender-Based Wage Differentials among Registered Dietitians. Health Care Manager, 26, 52-63.
Pulla, V. (2014). Patriarchy, gender violence and poverty amongst Pakistani women: a social work inquiry. Int J Soc Work Hum Serv Pract;2(2):56–63
Rabia M, Tanveer F, Gillani M, Naeem H, Akbar S. (2019). Gender inequality: a case study in Pakistan. Open Journal of Social Sciences; 7(03), 369
Rabia, M., Tanveer, F., Gillani, M., Naeem, H., & Akbar, S. (2019). Gender inequality: a case study in Pakistan. Open J Soc Sci;7(03):369.
Rahman, F. N. (2014). Gender and Access to Justice: A Case of Pakistan. JOUR
Rapaport, E. (1991). The death penalty and gender discrimination. Law and Society Review, 25, 368-383.
Raza, A., & Murad, H. S. (2010). Gender gap in Pakistan: A socio‐demographic analysis. International Journal of social economics. Vol. 37 No. 7, pp. 541-557.
Rives, Janet M. Yousefi, Mahmood. (1997). Economic Dimensions of Gender Inequality: A Global Perspective. Faculty Book Gallery
Roy, A. (2003). City requiem, Calcutta: Gender and the politics of poverty (Vol. 10). Minnesota Press.
Samir Dasgupta; Ismail Siriner; Partha Sarathi De. (2010). Women’s encounter with disaster. Frontpage publications
Schanzenbach, M. (2005). Racial and sex disparities in prison sentences: The effect of district-level judicial demographics. The Journal of Legal Studies, 34(1), 57-92.
Shah S, Shah U. Girl education in rural Pakistan. Revista Internacional de Sociología de la Educación 2012; 1(2), 180-207.
Shayo, M., & Zussman, A. (2011). Judicial ingroup bias in the shadow of terrorism. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 126(3), 1447-1484.
Shellenbarger, S.U.E. (2006) Boys Mow Lawns, Girls Do Dishes: Are Parents Perpetuating the Chore Wars? Wall street Journal-Eastern Edition, 258.
Social Policy and Development Center (SPDC). (2012). The Socio-economic Cost of Violence Against Women: A Case Study of Karachi. –
Spohn, C. & Welch, S. (1987). The effect of prior record in sentencing research: An examination of the assumption that any measure is adequate. Justice Quarterly, 4, 286-302.
Starr, S. B. (2015). Estimating gender disparities in federal criminal cases. American Law and Economics Review, 17(1), 127-159
Suddle, M. S. (2001). Reforming Pakistan Police: An Overview. - WAR. (2010, 2011, 2012). Sexual Violence Factsheet. Karachi. –
Tarar MG, Pulla, V. Patriarchy, gender violence and poverty amongst Pakistani women: A social work inquiry. International Journal of Social Work and Human Services Practice 2014; 2(2), 56-63.
Visher, C. (1983). Gender, police arrest decisions, and notions of chivalry. Criminology, 21, 5- 28.
Vishwanath, T. (2005). Pakistan: Country Gender Assessment, Bridging the Gender Gap, Opportunities and Challenges.
Willison, D. (1984). The effects of counsel on the severity of criminal sentences: A statistical Assessment. Justice System Journal, 9, 87-101.
Younus, J. (2015). Gender bias in the criminal justice system. Published in The Express Tribune, August 7th.
Zaman, S., & Rasheed, S. (2012). With and End in Sight: Incest in Pakistan- A Legal & Socio-cultural Analysis. Karachi: War Against Rape
Zarar, R., Bukhsh, M.M. and Khasheli, A.K. (2017) Causes and Consequences of Gender Discrimination against Women in Quetta City. Arts and Social Sciences Journal, 8, 1-6.